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Erik Erikson (1903-1994) was a German psychoanalyst who proposed the theory of psychosocial development. After studying with the famous neurologist Sigmund Freud, he emigrated to the United States, where he was a member of the Harvard Psychology Clinic and other institutes.
Background to Psychosocial Development Theory
Before Erikson, Freud put forward the theory of psychosexual development. According to this, sexuality awakens during childhood and is built in stages during which different body areas provide gratification to the individual by being endowed with an energy that seeks pleasure; this energy is known as libido . In turn, Freud proposed three “entities” that explain the personality of human beings: the id, the ego and the superego.
- The id moves from the immediate pleasure principle. It develops in the first two years of life.
- The self reflects on the consequences of uninhibited acts and behaviors. It develops from the age of two.
- The superego is the result of socialization, the internalization of social norms and compliance with moral rules.
Taking these elements, in his theory of psychosocial development, Erikson emphasized the social aspects of each of the stages raised by Freud. To this end, he broadened the understanding of the “I” as an organizing capacity of the individual that empowers him to solve crises in his context. In addition, he integrated the social dimension with psychosocial development, explained the formation of personality from childhood to old age, and explored the impact of culture, society, and history on its development.
Characteristics of psychosocial development theory
Erikson’s theory organizes the development of the entire life cycle into eight hierarchical stages; each stage integrates the somatic, psychic and ethical-social level and the epigenetic principle.
- The somatic level refers to the development of biological functions.
- The psychic level refers to personal experiences in relation to the “I”.
- The ethical-social level includes individual and group culture, ethics and spirituality, expressed in social principles and values.
- The epigenetic principle presupposes that the person develops according to their internal dispositions and capacities and that society participates in this process through significant relationships, social principles and rituals that link or unlink individuals.
Now, for each stage, Erikson attributed a psychosocial crisis that marks the transition from one stage to another and involves the tension between the strengths or potentialities of the individual (called syntonic forces ) and their defects or vulnerabilities (called dystonic forces ). Such forces influence the development of social principles, rituals, affective, cognitive and behavioral processes of people.
Taking the above into account, when an individual finds the solution to the crisis, a specific virtue arises in him for the stage in question; when he does not solve the crisis, he creates a defect or a specific fragility for that stage. The following table summarizes the crises for each stage and the psychosocial force that is triggered.
Stages of psychosocial development
trust versus mistrust
This stage develops between 0 and 12-18 months. Syntonic strength is the confidence that comes from physical well-being and the feeling of being welcomed and loved through parental care. For its part, a dystonic force is distrust, which develops when these needs are not met, which produces a feeling of abandonment.
When the individual achieves the resolution of the crisis trust vs. mistrust, the hope that will give meaning to his life and endow it with affective, social and spiritual meaning emerges in him.
autonomy versus shame
This stage develops between 2 to 3 years. The syntonic force is autonomy, which is strengthened thanks to processes such as muscular maturation and the capacity for oral expression, which gives the subject physical and verbal freedom. For its part, the dystonic force is the shame that comes from an excessive feeling of self-confidence and lack of self-control, which generates insecurity and invalidation.
The balance between self-confidence and shame is important for the development of moral awareness, a sense of law and order, solidarity, and altruistic behaviors. However, during the formation of the sense of justice, it can fall into a distorted ritualism (that is, permissive or rigid), which leads to legalism.
When the individual achieves the resolution of the crisis autonomy vs. shame, the will to discern and decide grows in him, so that he understands what he can freely want to be.
initiative versus guilt
This stage develops between 3 to 5 years. During this period, the individual discovers sexuality and improves his locomotor and oral skills. Also, he lays the foundation for his gender identity and for expressing his feelings. The syntonic force is the initiative that is born when acquiring these psychosexual, cognitive and behavioral learning; the dystonic force is to blame for the failure in this process.
The balance between initiative and guilt is essential for the development of moral awareness and healthy affective relationships. When the individual achieves the resolution of the initiative versus guilt crisis, the desire to act arises in him to be what he imagines he will be. In this sense, the ritualization comes mainly from the game, which simulates roles and social functions.
industriousness versus inferiority
This stage develops between 5-6 to 11-13 years. The syntonic force in this stage is industriousness – also known as “industry” – for the formation of the future professional, productivity and creativity. On the other hand, the dystonic force is the feeling of inferiority that arises from the inability to be productive, creative and competent.
On the resolution of the industriousness versus inferiority crisis depends the feeling of competence and participation in the productivity of society. However, this development must be accompanied by creativity, imagination and gratification, so that, in the future, they do not end up carrying out disintegrative and formalist tasks.
Identity versus role confusion
This stage develops between 12 to 20 years. The syntonic force is the identity from the psychosexual (by forging relationships of trust and loyalty), ideological (by assuming values of a group), psychosocial (by participating in movements or associations), professional (by leaning towards a vocation) and cultural ( by consolidating their cultural experience and strengthening the spiritual meaning of life). On the other hand, the dystonic force is the confusion of identity.
When the subject overcomes the identity versus confusion crisis, faith arises in him, and he understands that he is the one who can believe faithfully. This resolution also provides a worldview as the foundation of a personal worldview. However, in an effort to overcome his confusion, the person may join totalitarian ideological forms.
intimacy versus isolation
This stage develops between 20 to 30 years. The syntonic force is the intimacy that leads to choosing love and work partners, to feel related to social groups and to build the ethical force to be faithful to those ties. For its part, the dystonic force is affective isolation, which leads to individualism and egocentrism. The balance between these two forces promotes loving and professional fulfillment; also the ability to commit to causes and people.
Upon overcoming the intimacy versus isolation crisis, love, dedication and donation to others develops in the individual, so that he understands that “we are what we love”. However, disintegrative ritualizations such as elitism, narcissism and snobbery can take place.
Generativity vs. stagnation
This stage takes place between 30 and 50 years of age. At this stage, generativity as a syntonic force consists of caring for and investing in the training of new generations, which includes the effort to improve science, technology, and creativity for the well-being of descendants. For its part, the dystonic force is stagnation, that is, the feeling of personal and social infertility.
When the individual overcomes the crisis of generativity versus stagnation, virtues such as care, love and charity emerge in him. If the crisis prevails, narcissistic or authoritarian behaviors may emerge due to the exaggerated use of generative power through the imposition on the family, professional or ideological life of others.
integrity versus despair
This stage occurs after the age of 50. The syntonic force is integrity, so that the adult redefines her behaviors and feelings in light of values and experiences. Therefore, the person is faced with the acceptance of himself, the integration of all the syntonic forces, the experience of love, the conviction before his lifestyle and trust in others. For its part, the dystonic force is despair, the product of lack or loss of that integration.
When the adult overcomes the crisis of integrity versus despair, he develops wisdom as a basic force, taking into account that he applies the knowledge accumulated during life, makes fair judgments and is capable of reflective dialogue. If the crisis is not overcome, this leads to fear of death, hopelessness and disdain.
Additional Considerations About Theory
Some authors as they analyze, regarding the theory of psychosocial development that this:
- Considers that men and women have personality differences due to biological differences.
- It implies a strong “I” as the key to mental health, so that the individual gives a positive resolution by giving prevalence to the syntonic forces over the dystonic ones.
- He attributes to the unconscious a fundamental force in the formation of personality.
- It argues that society shapes the way people behave.
Sources
Bordignon, N. The psychosocial development of Eric Erikson. The adult epigenetic diagram . Lasallian Research Magazine, 2(2): 50-63, 2005.
Dunkel, CS, & Harbke, C. (2017). A review of measures of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development: Evidence for a general factor . Journal of Adult Development, 24(1): 58-76, 2017.
Maree, JG The psychosocial development theory of Erik Erikson: critical overview . Early Child Development and Care, 191(7-8), 1107–1121, 2021. doi:10.1080/03004430.2020.1845163
