What were the deities of Mesopotamia?

In Mesopotamia several civilizations arose that contributed enormously to the development of humanity, such as the Sumerians, the Assyrians, the Akkadians and the Babylonians. One of the common characteristics between these civilizations was the polytheistic religious practices where more than 3,500 deities were worshiped, including gods such as Enki, Enlil, Marduk, Ishtar, Tiamat and Anu, among others.

What is Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia is a historical and cultural region of the Ancient Age that covered a large part of the Near East, that is, the fertile lands between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in the current territories of Syria and Iraq.

The first human settlements in Mesopotamia are believed to date from 6000 BC However, the first more organized, sedentary and agriculturally based Mesopotamian civilizations arose around 3000 BC. c. 

The history of Mesopotamia began with the rise of the Sumerian civilization, the establishment of the city-states Uruk, Uma, Ur, Eridu, Lagas, and Kis, and the development of writing. This historical stage is known as the Sumerian period. In the centuries that followed, other civilizations flourished in Mesopotamia, such as the Akkadian Empire, the Babylonian Empire, the Assyrian Empire, and the Neo-Babylonian Empire. These civilizations went into decline and disappeared, after the invasion of the Persians in the sixth century BC. C., Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Persian Empire in the 4th century B.C. C. and the subsequent Roman invasion in the 2nd century BC. c.

Ancient Mesopotamia was the cradle of the Gardens of Babylon, one of the seven wonders of the Ancient World, the Code of Hammurabi, the legend of the Tower of Babel and other biblical events, such as the universal flood. Also in this area and historical period important contributions were made in the field of science, mathematics, literature, astronomy and medicine.

Religion in Mesopotamia

Like other civilizations developed during the same historical era, such as the ancient Egyptians, religion was an important factor in the Mesopotamian civilizations. It not only influenced behavior, daily practices and art, but also the founding of cities and politics.

The Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, that is, it consisted of the worship of different gods. Although the different Mesopotamian civilizations venerated the same gods, they called them in different ways. For example, the Sumerian god Enki, was known as Ea in Akkadian and is also mentioned in this way in the Babylonian poem Enuma Elish , one of the most prominent sources on the creation myth, which describes the origin of the universe and includes the names of 300 gods.

Although the Mesopotamian civilizations worshiped various deities, each city had a patron god, who was worshiped in the main temple. For example, in the city of Uruk, the sky god Anu and his daughter Inanna or Ishtar were venerated ; In the city of Nippur, Enlil, the god of the earth, was worshiped, and in Eridu, Enki, the god of water, was worshiped. The hierarchy and political importance of a city was closely related to the deity that represented it, and vice versa.  

The gods were associated with stars like the sun, the moon, the stars; the forces of nature, such as winds and fresh and ocean waters; animals, such as lions, bulls, oxen; to fantastic creatures, like dragons; or with human activities such as writing, livestock, agriculture, etc. 

Throughout the centuries, in Mesopotamia the different gods had periods of greater or lesser worship. In the 17th century B.C. C., King Hammurabi established Babylon as the capital of the empire and consecrated Marduk as the main god. However, the other deities continued to be venerated until the Roman conquest. Subsequently, Christianity and later Islam were introduced in this area.

Characteristics of the Mesopotamian deities

The Mesopotamian deities had some common characteristics among themselves, which equalized them, and at the same time, differentiated them from human beings. They were characterized by:

• Being anthropomorphic, that is, having the appearance of men or women.
• Being surrounded by an aura or melammu .
• be immortal.
• Have defects and virtues.
• Possess special powers.
• Behaving like human beings, having emotions and sexual relations, having spouses and children, and performing daily activities such as eating and drinking.
• Be unpredictable and capricious.
• Lead an idle life.
• Receive offerings and grant favors.
• To punish or take revenge on humans through disease, pests, crop failure, or death.

In addition to these characteristics, the Mesopotamian gods were admired and feared, and human beings had to make offerings and sacrifices to them in exchange for their favor and protection.

Most of the deities were represented in wooden figurines covered in gold, in human form and a horned headdress. They also adorned themselves with clothing and jewelry. Another way of representing the gods was on stelae, by means of symbols, such as daggers, in reference to the god Ashur; a triangular shovel, as an emblem of Marduk; a wedge for the god of writing, Nabu; or a crescent moon for Nannar, the god of the moon. 

The gods of Mesopotamia

Thousands of deities were worshiped in Mesopotamia. Some of the most important gods were:

• Apsu
• Tiamat
• Goose
• anu
• ninhursag
• Enki
• nannar
• utu
• Ishtar
• ereshkigal
• enlil
• ninurta
• Marduk
• Nabu

Apsu, god of water

Apsu, Abzu, Engur or Engurru, is one of the oldest gods of Mesopotamia. In the myth of the creation of the universe, Apsu is the god of sacred subterranean water who was united with Tiamat, goddess of the sea and salt water. Together they gave rise to heaven and earth and engendered the other gods, creating the world and the beings that inhabit it.

According to legend, Apsu and Tiamat became enraged with their children and caused great chaos on Earth. Enki killed Apsu and established himself as one of the main gods. In this way, Apsu was relegated to the depths of the earth, forming aquifers. That is why it is believed that all sources of fresh water, such as rivers, lakes and springs, come from this god. Later, the god Marduk, son of Enki, defeated Tiamat and restored order to heaven and earth.

Apsu appears represented as a winged man, or through the symbols of a cup, a house or a bowl with a star.

Tiamat, goddess of the sea

Tiamat is a word of Akkadian origin meaning “sea”. She is the goddess of the sea, the ocean, and of original chaos. She is also the personification of salt water and the wife of Apsu. Together with him she engendered the gods Mummu, Lahmu, Lahamu, Kisar, Anshar, Kaka and Kingu and gave birth to the world. 

His sons Ansar and Kishar, in turn, engendered Anu, god of heaven and paradise, who later united with Ninhursag, the goddess of the earth and had his son Enki, god of water. 

According to Mesopotamian mythology, Enki defeated Apsu when the latter turned against him. Tiamat, seized with fury at the death of her husband, decided to take revenge on her. However, she did not achieve her goal. Later, the god Marduk killed her, thus ending the chaos that had been unleashed on Earth. 

Tiamat was depicted as a menacing figure, in the form of a dragon, serpent, a winged tiger, or other beasts.

Ansar, God of the Primal Sky

Ansar, Anshar or Anshur and was an Akkadian sky god. His name meant “all heaven.” He was the second generation of Mesopotamian gods. With his sister Kisar, goddess of the whole earth, he fathered the god Anu, who would later father other important gods and therefore would be known as the “father of the gods.”

According to the epic poem Enuma Elish , after Enki killed Apsu, and found out that Tiamat was planning to avenge him, Ansar tried to convince Enki to kill her. He later sent Anu to speak with Tiamat to get her to intercede and settle the conflict.

Due to his involvement in these conflicts, Ansar was also associated with Ashur, god of war. 

Anu, god of heaven

Anu, An or Anum, is a Sumerian god whose name means “sky.” He was the father of the gods and all beings that inhabit the world. Anu was fathered by Ansar, god of the sky, who joined his sister Kisar, goddess of the earth.

Anu was considered the supreme god in Sumer and was the patron of the city of Uruk. There he was worshiped in the E-an-na temple, which meant “house of heaven.” Anu was also related to kings, as it was believed that they drew their power from him. For this reason, he used to represent him with a scepter or a tiara.

Furthermore, Anu was also the god of constellations and justice. At a certain moment he was part of the triad of the most important deities together with Enlil, god of the air and Enki, god of water. 

Anu lived with his wife Ninhursag in the highest heaven. With her he had her children Enlil, god of the air; Enki, god of water; and the deities Ningikuga, Gulu, Nusku, Martu, Gibil and the mythological creatures Igigi and the seven gods Sebitti.

During the Assyrian and Babylonian periods, Anu was associated with the gods Assur and Marduk, respectively.

Ninhursag, goddess of the earth

Ninhursag, which means “lady of the sacred hills”, also called Ki, “earth”, is the Sumerian goddess of the earth and one of the main deities of Mesopotamia. She was also called Aruru, Dingirmakh, Ninmah, Nintu, Mami, Belet-ili, Ninmakh or Nintur. Some versions suggest that she was the daughter of Nammu, goddess of the ocean, and Anu, god of the sky, who was also her consort. 

According to legend, in the beginning of time, the earth and the sky were united. In a moment, in the primordial ocean a mountain (Ninhursag) arose, which with its peak touched the sky (Anu). In this way, they conceived his son Enlil, god of the air, who at birth separated the sky from the earth, giving rise to the day. 

Ninhursag was also considered as the mother goddess, the goddess of fertility and births and was the protector of children.

Enki, god of water

Enki or Ea, is the Sumerian god of water, mainly fresh water. He was the son of Anu and Ninhursag and was one of the most prominent gods of Mesopotamia. He was also the god of wisdom, magic, construction, the arts, and creation. In fact, Enki was the creator of men. According to mythology, Enki, with the help of Ninhursag, molded fourteen pieces of clay and performed a magical ritual, giving rise to seven men and seven women. He then endowed them with knowledge so that they could practice agriculture and learn their trades. 

Enki also created the apkallu or “men of the sea”, spirits that were half man and half fish. Supposedly, they were the wise advisers of the first Mesopotamian kings. 

When Enlil tried to destroy humanity by means of the deluge, Enki had a ship built to save men. 

Enki reigned in the depths of the earth, where the primordial waters or Apsu were, and was venerated in the temple of E-ngur, in the city of Eridu. He represented it to her as a man pouring water. He also appeared with the symbol of a goat or a fish and was associated with the constellations of Aquarius and Capricorn.

Nannar, god of the moon

Nannar, Nanna, Sin, Suen or Zuen, was the Sumerian god of the moon. He was also called En-zu “god of wisdom” and was the son of Enlil and the air goddess, Ninlil. Nannar was the patron god of the city of Ur and was worshiped there in the E-gish-shir-gal or “house of light” temple.

Nannar was also a god associated with astrology and astronomy. He ruled the passing of the months, controlled the tides and the menstrual cycles. He represented him as an old man with horns and a beard, riding a winged bull. His symbols were the crescent moon and the bull. He was the protector of the herdsmen along with his wife, the moon goddess Ningal, whose symbol was the cow.

This god was of great importance because he was the father of Inanna or Ishtar, goddess of love and life. Also, with his consort Ningal, he had Utu, the sun god. Along with Utu and Ishtar, he was part of the Semitic triad of gods of the Akkadian period of Mesopotamia. Some versions suggest that he was also the father of Ereshkigal, the goddess of the underworld.

Utu, god of the sun 

Utu, Shamash, Babbar or Ninurta, was the sun god, son of the moon gods Nannar and Ningal. Along with his sister Ishtar, the goddess of the morning star, and his father Nannar, he was part of the Mesopotamian astral triad. His wife was Serida, the goddess of the dawn and patron of priestesses called naditu .

Utu was also the god of justice, morality and truth. He was worshiped mainly in the cities of Eridu, Sippar and Larsa. 

Utu traveled the skies in his chariot and knew everything that happened in the world during the day. He was famous for his kindness and generosity. He spread the light from him and reigned over the darkness, coming to illuminate the souls of the dead in the underworld. He represented him as an elderly man with a beard, with an aura of lightning emanating from his body. His symbol was the sun disk.

Ishtar, goddess of love

Ishtar, Ishhara, Irnini, or Inanna was the Sumerian goddess of love, passion, sexuality, fertility, and war. She was the equivalent of the Phoenician goddess Astarte, the Greek goddess Aphrodite, and the Roman goddess Venus. She over time became the main mother goddess and replaced Ninhursag. Her consort was the god Dumuzi, protector of shepherds.  

Ishtar was the daughter of the moon gods Nannar and Ningal and sister of Utu, god of the sun. She was the patron of the city of Uruk and her symbols were an eight-pointed star and a curved beam for cutting reeds. The cult of Ishtar in Uruk included violent rituals, such as the use of daggers, razors, and other weapons, and sexual rites, such as copulating in public places.

A Sumerian myth tells that Ishtar went down to the underworld, to face the goddess Ereshkigal. When Ishtar died, living things couldn’t reproduce anymore. For this reason, the god of water, Enki, sent creatures to recover Ishtar’s corpse and to be able to resurrect her with the “water of life”. After being revived, Ishtar had to find someone to replace her in the underworld. When she returned to her throne, she discovered that her husband Dumuzi had usurped her place. Therefore, she sent him as her substitute to the underworld. In this way, Dumuzi came to reign during the autumn and winter, and Ishtar during the spring and summer.

This myth is related to the Mesopotamian tradition in which the seasons of the year were related to life and death. Autumn and winter were the months in which the earth prepares itself to be able to bloom and give life in spring and summer. Therefore, these periods were associated with death and life, respectively. After death, men went to the underworld or to Irkalla , known as the “land of no return”, where they went through a period of purification to move on to a better life.

Ereshkigal, goddess of the underworld

Ereshkigal or Allatu, “lady of the great place”, was the supreme goddess of the underworld. She was the daughter of the moon god Nannar, sister of Ishtar, and wife of the god of death, Nergal. Ereshkigal was famous for her beauty.

Originally Ereshkigal was part of the celestial pantheon, but the Kur serpent kidnapped her and took her to the underworld, where she became queen. 

One of the myths about Ereshkigal tells that the god Nergal was sent to the underworld as a punishment. The god Enki advised him that in order to avoid staying there forever, he should not accept anything from Ereshkigal.

Arriving in the underworld, she offered Nergal a seat, food and drink, but the god refused them. After her, Ereshkigal told him that she would go bathe and he could watch her. Nergal could not resist and gave in to her charms. After seven nights, Nergal left the underworld and unleashed the fury of Ereshkigal. To avoid chaos in the world of the living, Nergal returned to the underworld, Ereshkigal confessed her love to him and together they began to reign in the world of the dead.

Nergal was also associated with disease, destruction, forest fires, and other natural catastrophes.

Enlil, god of the air

Enlil or Ellil, was the god of air, atmosphere, wind, strength and agriculture. He was also known as the “lord of the heavens and the earth” and the “lord of the storms” and was associated with climate changes. He was worshiped mainly in the city of Nippur, in the Ekur temple or “mountain house”. 

In addition, Enlil kept the tablets of destiny, on which the future of men depended. For this reason, and because of his irascible character, Enlil was one of the most feared gods of Mesopotamia. His anger was manifested through natural catastrophes, such as strong storms, floods and changes in the course of rivers, phenomena that had negative consequences on crops. Enlil was also the one who caused a great deluge to destroy humanity.

According to the myth, Enlil separated Anu, “the sky”, from Ki, “the earth”, thus creating the day and the world as we know it. Along with Anu and Enki, he formed the supreme triad of the Sumerian pantheon. According to another legend, Enlil found Ninlil and impregnated her. From their union the gods Nannar, Ninurta, Nergal and Enbilulu were born.

Ninurta, god of rain

Ninurta, Ningirsu, Ishkur or Asalluhe was the Sumerian god of rain and thunderstorms. He was also considered as a warrior hero and the god of war. He was the patron of the city of Bit Khakuru and of the farmers. Ninurta was the son of Enlil, god of the wind. 

One of the legends about this god recounts his fight against the Anzu bird, after he stole the tablets of destiny that belonged to his father Enlil. 

Ninurta’s symbol was the plow and he was sometimes depicted holding a magical spear. Ninurta was also credited with healing powers against diseases and curses from demons. He was worshiped at the Eshumesha temple in the city of Nippur.

Marduk, god of justice and order

Marduk, Amar.utu, or Marutuk, was the chief Babylonian god and patron of Babylon, the capital of the empire. He was the creator god and king of all men. He was also the god of justice and thunderstorms. He was venerated in the Esagila temple, in Babylon. It is believed that he had about fifty honorary titles and commonly received the title of Bel or “Lord”. 

Marduk is the son of Enki, god of water, and the mother goddess, Ninhursag. He was characterized by being merciful and, at the same time, firm and fearsome. He was consort of Sarpanitu, goddess of birth. Marduk was also the father of Nabu, god of writing. He was associated with the planet Jupiter and was depicted holding a shovel, hoe, scepter or bow of arrows and wearing a robe adorned with stars. Sometimes he also represented him walking or riding in his carriage.

King Hammurabi mentioned Marduk in the famous Code of Hammurabi, declaring him the main god. There he appeared sitting in front of Hammurabi and gave him the laws to govern humanity. 

According to the myth, Marduk defeated the primordial chaos, Tiamat, restored peace to the world, and became the Lord of heaven and earth. 

Nabu, god of writing

Nabu was the god of writing. He was the son of the Babylonian god Marduk and his wife Sarpanitu, and the grandson of the god Enki. He was known as the “scribe” and the “beloved son” of Marduk. Her wife was the Akkadian goddess Tasmetu, known as “the lady who listens”, in reference to her role as listener of prayers and intermediary between the gods and the faithful.

Nabu was idolized mainly in the temple of E-zida, in the city of Borsippa. Every year, during the New Year festivals, the statues of Nabu and Marduk were transported from Borsippa to Babylon. 

Nabu was the patron of scribes and his symbol was the tablet with writing tools. He represented it to her as a man standing with folded hands, wearing a horned cap. Sometimes he appeared mounted on a winged dragon. 

Also, Nabu was one of the most important gods because one of his roles as a scribe was to write the fate of each person.

Other Mesopotamian deities

In addition to the aforementioned gods, who were mostly heavenly gods who ruled in the heavens, many other deities existed in Mesopotamia, associated with all aspects of earthly life and the afterlife. There were also other malevolent creatures and demons. Some of these minor Mesopotamian gods and demons were:

• Ashur, god of war: Ashur, Assur or Asshar, was the Assyrian god of war and life. He was the patron of the city of Ashur. He was regarded as the chief god of Assyria, and his symbols were a dragon, a winged sun disk, and a tree.He was depicted with a drawn bow, ready to shoot, and parades were held in his honor. . Ashur received as an offering the sacrifice of the prisoners of war.
• Dagon, god of cereals: Dagon or Dagan, means “grain”, “seed”, and was the god of cereals and the protector of crops. He was responsible for the growth of crops, the invention of the plow and the cultivation of wheat. Due to his creative role, this god was associated with Anu, father of the gods and creator of heaven and earth. He was revered in the cities of Ugarit and Ebla.
• Ninazu, the Healing God: Ninazu was a god of the underworld who had healing powers. Supposedly, he was the son of Ereshkigal and Gugalana. He was venerated in the city of Esnunna and his symbol was a serpent dragon. 
• Kur, god of water: Kur or Irkalla, was the Sumerian god of subterranean fresh water from the underworld. He represented it to her as a fearsome serpent dragon.
• Erra, Akkadian and Babylonian god of war and plagues: he was also the god of conflicts, revolts and armed confrontations. 
• Belet-tseri: scribe goddess of the underworld, who kept the list of deceased people.
• Namtar: demon of the underworld who personified death, the fatal destiny of a person.
• Sumuqan: Sumerian god of cattle, patron of shepherds.
• Lamashtu: female demon with the head of a lion, bird’s feet, and donkey’s ears, who threatened women during childbirth and suckling.
• Nissaba: Sumerian goddess of writing and the harvest.
• Geshtu: god of intelligence. 

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