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The Mayans are one of the most important pre-Hispanic civilizations, that is, those that occupied Abya Yala (as the American continent was called) before the arrival of the Europeans. They arose from the II millennium BC. of C in the Petén region, Yucatán peninsula, which currently corresponds to the countries of Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador. At its time of greatest expansion, the Mayan territory stretched from southern Mexico to western Nicaragua.
Periods in the history of the Mayan civilization
The historical development of the Maya has been divided into three periods: the Preclassic (1200 BC-250 AD), the Classic (250-900 AD) and the Postclassic (900-1521 A.D.). Besides, it includes the time of the conquest and the colony.
Preclassic period
During the Preclassic period, the Mayan cities of Izapa, Kaminaljuyú, El Baúl, El Mirador and Nakbé arose. In the first century AD. C., these cities fell into decline and were later abandoned due to, among other factors, soil erosion caused by agricultural activity and droughts in the region.
Policy. The Preclassic Mayan government was presided over by a king, who was given supernatural attributes and in whom all power and decisions were focused. Due to the above, monuments were erected to them while they were alive and when they died, they continued in force in political affairs as patrons, guides or ancestors.
Economy. The Preclassic Maya economy was based on agriculture and trade. To farm, they developed techniques such as slash and burn (burning of portions of land and subsequent fertilization of the soil with ashes) and the construction of rainwater reservoirs or water obtained from swampy areas. To trade, they formed exchange networks for precious stones and ceramics with other regions; These transactions allowed them to adapt customs from other cultures, such as writing on stone.
Society. Preclassic Maya society had a hierarchical organization not only between people, but also between cities. The most important of these was El Mirador, a commercial town from which routes to the other populations under its power, dedicated mainly to agriculture, arose.
Art. Preclassic Mayan arts were expressed in stelae, vertical pieces of stone in which important scenes were represented, in front of which altars were installed, forming a structure known as the stela-altar complex. By making an offering on the altar, it was believed that the scene depicted on the stela was reactivated and its effects were repeated.
Classical period
During the Classic period, the Mayan civilization reached its maximum extension, covering from the Gulf of Mexico to Honduras, and from the Caribbean coast to the Pacific coast. The most numerous and dense cities were Calakmul, Copán, Tikal and Palenque, for which a network of roads was built that connected the region from north to south. This period ended in the 9th century, due to political and military crises and phenomena such as droughts and soil infertility.
Policy. The Mayan politics of the Classic period was framed by the confrontation between two dynasties that ruled the enemy cities of Tikal and Calakmul. Tikal had trade relations with major cities in other regions, while Calakmul forged alliances with smaller cities. However, the fall of one of Tikal’s partners allowed Calakmul to prevail for at least a century. Later, the cities subservient to the dynasty were liberated, but, like Calakmul, with time and the decline of their systems, they were abandoned.
Economy. The Mayan economy of the Classic period maintained agriculture as its main activity, which prospered from the construction of cultivation terraces. In addition, the trade in ceramics, precious stones, aromatic plant resins, and bird feathers strengthened the supply and demand for luxury goods.
Society. The Mayan society of the Classic had a pyramidal organization, whose peak was occupied by the person in charge of the government of the main cities, then there was the nobility, made up of priests, rulers of secondary cities, artisans and warriors. Below the previous groups were the farmers.
Art. Classic Maya arts are reflected in works such as temples on top of pyramids, palaces, and astronomical observatories. These buildings were intended to “build time” by counting days and cycles, and extending the authority of personalities such as rulers, whose statue maintained order with their presence.
Postclassic period
During the Postclassic period, the Mayans of the north of the Yucatan peninsula were the political and economic supremacy of this civilization. The most important cities were Chichén Itzá, Mayapán and Uxmal.
Policy. The Postclassic Maya government was made up of a network of leaders who formed alliances with other lineages, the most important dynasties being the Itzaes, the Tutul Xiues, and the Cocomes. These alliances ended due to various clashes and the main cities were abandoned in the 15th century. However, the lineages were still in force in Yucatan when the Spanish arrived, during the period of the conquest.
Economy. The Mayan economy of the Postclassic period had its peak in commercial activities with regions that were geographically far from the main cities. The products that were most exchanged were salt and cotton. Ports were also built that traded, among other things, tools and luxury goods with Central America and northern South America.
Society. Postclassic Maya rule was dominated by family lineages that created confederations, within which were an elite and a peasant population. The lineages were not established in a delimited territory, but rather responded to family relationships distributed in different places.
Art. Postclassic Maya arts were a reflection of relationships with other geographically remote regions, which arose from commercial activities. One of the most representative elements of the period were the codices, narratives that evidenced the history of civilization.
The conquest
In 1517, the expeditionary Francisco Hernández de Córdoba led a group of Spaniards who reached the Yucatán peninsula without being able to occupy it, due to the resistance of the Mayan people present there. A second expedition led by Juan de Grijalva in 1518 suffered the same fate. The third attempt was carried out by an expedition that left Cuba in 1519, headed by Hernán Cortés.
Cortés sent expeditionaries to Central America between 1522 and 1524. Thus, Pedro de Alvarado and his troops subdued the Mayans of present-day Guatemala and Cristóbal de Olid occupied the Mayan ports of Nito and Naco (coast of present-day Honduras). Later, Alvarado’s men dominated the Mayan regions of Cuscatlán, in the current territory of El Salvador.
Despite these advances, in Yucatán there was more Mayan resistance, so much so that after several attempts the Castilians abandoned the peninsula and went south, so that by 1535 no conquerors remained in the place. However, in 1540 the Europeans resumed their efforts and finally founded a town from which the regime was consolidated in a part of the peninsula that was not fully dominated during the colonial era.
The colony
Once the Mayan territories were occupied, the Spanish instituted the figure of the encomienda , a system in which they promised to defend, convert to Christianity and take care of the indigenous people in exchange for their services. This system forced the natives to deliver the fruits of their labor to the settler, under penalty of receiving punishment. Consequently, a punitive legal system was introduced that had not formed part of the political organization of the Maya until then.
Despite the fact that the encomienda favored the occupiers, many of them decided not to stay, which is why the conquered territories were characterized by being made up of a small group of Spaniards and Creoles compared to a large indigenous population.
In addition to the encomienda, political entities were established led by the one who, in the name of the king, had managed to dominate that territory, becoming its governor . Political entities remain today as provinces or states.
In the political entities several Mayan nations were grouped. This is explained because the indigenous people were organized into congregaciones , urbanized towns that had nothing to do with the ancient Maya settlement pattern. The congregations made it easier for the encomenderos to control and evangelize their subordinates. However, starting in 1549, the formation of councils was consented to, mechanisms that allowed the inhabitants of a congregation to choose their own authorities, which had to be confirmed by a Spanish authority, the Audiencia .
Although the system of cabildos and audiencias spread to various regions of the continent occupied by Spaniards, for the Mayans it behaved differently: as the extensive territory did not have enough officials and regulatory Spanish entities, in some areas it was determined that only the cabildantes whose towns were at a certain distance from the Audiencia had to appear to be confirmed. For this reason, many Mayan towns could elect their mayors without the need for external confirmation, enjoying freedoms that did not exist in other conquered areas.
The Mayans today
Today, more than seven million Maya live in their original lands in Mesoamerica and maintain their settlements near many of the archaeological sites from pre-Hispanic times. Their culture is being preserved by preserving their native languages, which consist of more than thirty Mayan languages; In addition, they maintain customs such as growing corn, weaving traditional garments, and using their sacred calendar for the cultural preservation of their communities.
However, many Mayans have also inserted themselves into the Western culture brought by the conquistadors: they live around the world and work in various professions such as teachers, doctors, archaeologists, graphic designers, timekeepers, and much more.
Sources
Lohmey, G. The Maya under Colonial Regime . University Digital Magazine. 13(10), ISSN: 1067-6079, 2012.
Pallan. C. Brief history of the Maya . Madrid: Ediciones Nowtilus, SL, 2011.
Living Mayan time. The Mayans . Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian, nd
